2017年9月17日托福阅读机经预测

　　科学类

　　The Birth of Photography，参考TPO22-P2

　　Title：The Birth of Photography

　　Perceptions of the visible world were greatly altered by the invention of photography in the middle of the nineteenth century. In particular, and quite logically, the art of painting was forever changed, though not always in the ways one might have expected. The realistic and naturalistic painters of the mid- and late-nineteenth century were all intently aware of photography—as a thing to use, to learn from, and react to.

　　Unlike most major inventions, photography had been long and impatiently awaited. The images produced by the camera obscura, a boxlike device that used a pinhole or lens to throw an image onto a ground-glass screen or a piece of white paper, were already familiar—the device had been much employed by topographical artists like the Italian painter Canaletto in his detailed views of the city of Venice. What was lacking was a way of giving such images permanent form. This was finally achieved by Louis Daguerre (1787-1851), who perfected a way of fixing them on a silvered copper plate. His discovery, the "daguerreotype," was announced in 1839.

　　A second and very different process was patented by the British inventor William Henry Talbot (1800- 1877) in 1841. Talbot's "calotype" was the first negative-to-positive process and the direct ancestor of the modern photograph. The calotype was revolutionary in its use of chemically treated paper in which areas hit by light became dark in tone, producing a negative image. This "negative," as Talbot called it, could then be used to print multiple positive images on another piece of treated paper.

　　The two processes produced very different results. The daguerreotype was a unique image that reproduced what was in front of the camera lens in minute, unselective detail and could not be duplicated. The calotype could be made in series, and was thus the equivalent of an etching or an engraving. Its general effect was soft edged and tonal.

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　　Early American Printing Industry

　　科学类

　　The Birth of Photography

　　Early American Printing Industry

　　农业类

　　Agricultural Society in Eighteenth- Century British

　　America

　　Water Management in Early Agriculture

　　经济类

　　Effects of the Commercial Revolution

　　Seventeenth-Century European Economic Growth

　　考古类

　　Environmental Impact of the Anasazi

　　The Collapse of the Mays

　　The Chaco Phenomenon

　　社会类

　　Population Growth in Nineteenth-Century Europe

　　Hunting and the Setting of Inner Eurasia

　　生物类

　　Extinctions at the End of the Cretaceous

　　The Cambrian Explosion

　　The Extinction of the Dinosaurs

　　How Animals in Rain Forests Make Themselves Heard

　　Sociality in Animals

　　Dinosaurs and Parental Care

　　Habitat Selection

　　Temperature Regulation in Marine Organisms

　　Cell Theory

　　Poikilotherms

　　Forest Succession

　　The Role of Diapause

　　The Identification of the Genetic Material

　　How Plants and Animals Arrived in the Hawaiian Islands

　　Constraints on Natural Selection

　　天文类

　　Surface Fluids on Venus and Earth

　　Origin of the Solar System

　　Comets

　　文化艺术类

　　The Origins of Writing

　　Live Performance

　　The Origins of Theater

　　The Development of Printing

　　Early Theories of Continental Drift

　　Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age

　　How Soil is Formed

　　Earth’s Energy Cycle

　　Thermal Stratification

　　The Climate of Japan

　　The Role of the Ocean in Controlling Climate