1.[问答题]One basic weakness in a conservation system based wholly on economic motives is that most members of the land community have no economic value. Yet these creatures are members of the biotic community and, if its stability depends on its integrity, they are entitled to continuance.

　　When one of these noneconomic categories is threatened and, if we happen to love it, we invent excuses to give it economic importance. At the beginning of the century songbirds were supposed to be disappearing.(1)Scientists jumped to the rescue with some distinctly shaky evidence to the effect that insects would eat us up if birds failed to control them. The evidence had to be economic in order to be valid.

　　It is painful to read these roundabout accounts today. We have no land ethic yet,(2)but we have at least drawn nearer the point of admitting that birds should continue as a matter of intrinsic right, regardless of the presence or absence of economic advantage to us.

　　A parallel situation exists in respect of predatory mammals and fish-eating birds.(3)Time was when biologists somewhat overworked the evidence that these creatures preserve the health of game by killing the physically weak, or that they prey only on “worthless” species. Here again, the evidence had to be economic in order to be valid. It is only in recent years that we hear the more honest argument that predators are members of the community, and that no special interest has the right to exterminate them for the sake of a benefit, real or fancied, to itself.

　　Some species of trees have been “read out of the party” by economics-minded foresters because they grow too slowly, or have too low a sale value to pay as timber crops.(4)In Europe, where forestry is ecologically more advanced, the noncommercial tree species are recognized as members of the native forest community, to be preserved as such, within reason. Moreover, some have been found to have a valuable function in building up soil fertility. The interdependence of the forest and its constituent tree species, ground flora, and fauna is taken for granted.

　　To sum up: a system of conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly lopsided.(5)It tends to ignore, and thus eventually to eliminate, many elements in the land community that lack commercial value, but that are essential to its healthy functioning. It assumes, falsely, that the economic parts of the biotic clock will function without the uneconomic parts.

　　参考答案：

　　(1)科学家们立即拿出某些明显站不住脚的证据前来救驾，大致是说如果鸟类不能控制害虫数量的话，害虫就会吞噬我们人类。

　　(2)但是我们至少已经几乎承认，不管鸟类对我们是否具有经济利益，它们都应该继续享有其固有的生存权利。

　　(3)生物学家们曾一度滥用了这个证据，即这些生物通过猎杀弱者来保持猎物的健康发展，或者只是捕食“没有价值的”物种。

　　(4)在林业生态更为发达的欧洲，那些没有商业价值的树种被视为原始森林群落的成员而被合理保护。

　　(5)这种环保体系容易忽视并最终导致陆地生物群落中诸多物种的灭绝，而这些物种虽然缺乏商业价值，但对陆地生物群落的健康运行却至关重要。

　　2.[问答题]There is a marked difference between the education which every one gets from living with others and the deliberate educating of the young. In the former case the education is incidental; it is natural and important, but it is not the express reason of the association.(1)It may be said that the measure of the worth of any social institution is its effect in enlarging and improving experience, but this effect is not a part of its original motive. Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc.(2)Only gradually was the by-product of the institution noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution. Even today, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the forms of human association under which the world's work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output.

　　But in dealing with the young, the fact of association itself as an immediate human fact, gains in importance.(3)While it is easy to ignore in our contact with them the effect of our acts upon their disposition, it is not so easy as in dealing with adults. The need of training is too evident and the pressure to accomplish a change in their attitude and habits is too urgent to leave these consequences wholly out of account.(4)Since our chief business with them is to enable them to share in a common life we cannot help considering whether or not we are forming the powers which will secure this ability. If humanity has made some headway in realizing that the ultimate value of every institution is its distinctively human effect we may well believe that this lesson has been learned largely through dealings with the young.

　　(5)We are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational process which we have been so far considering, a more formal kind of education—that of direct tuition or schooling. In undeveloped social groups, we find very little formal teaching and training. These groups mainly rely for instilling needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of association which keeps adults loyal to their group.

　　参考答案：

　　(1)我们或许可以说衡量任何社会机构价值的标准是其在丰富和完善人生经验方面所产生的影响，但这种影响并不是其最初动机的一部分。

　　(2)人们只是逐渐才注意到社会机构的这一副产品，而把这种作用视为机构运作的指导性因素的过程则更为缓慢。

　　(3)虽然与年轻人接触时我们会轻易地忽视自己的行为对他们的性格所产生的影响，但这并不像与成年人打交道那么简单。

　　(4)由于我们的主要职责在于使年轻人能够融入共同的生活，因此我们不得不考虑自己是否在构建能够确保他们获得这种本领的能力。

　　(5)因此，这就引导我们在一直思考的广泛的教育过程中区分出一种更加正规的教育形式，即直接指导或学校教育。

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